Chapter 15 Biological Psychology Terms

Antipsychotic drugs
*Drugs used to relieve the symptoms of schizophrenia and other conditions with psychotic symptoms

Atypical Antidepressants
*Miscellaneous group of drugs with antidepressant effects but only mild side effects

Bipolar Disorder
*A condition that alternates between depression and mania

Bipolar I Disorder

*Condition including full-blown episodes of mania

Bipolar II Disorder
*Condition with milder manic phases and depression

Butyrophenones
*A chemical family that includes antipsychotic drugs (haloperidol) that relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Chlorphromazine
*Thorazine – antipsychotic drug that relieves the positive symptoms of schizophrenia for most, though not all, patients

Concordance
*Similarity between individuals with regard to a trait

Delusions
*False beliefs

Differential Diagnosis
*One that rules out other conditions with similar symptoms

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia
*Idea that schizophrenia results from excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain brain areas

Electroconvulsive Therapy
*ECT – a treatment for depression by electrically inducing a seizure

Glutamate Hypothesis of Schizophrenia
*Proposal that schizophrenia relates in part to deficient activity at glutamate synapses, especially in the prefrontal cortex

Lithium
*A simple salt often used in the treatment of bipolar disorder

Major Depression
*A condition in which people feel sad and helpless every day for weeks at a time

Mania
*A condition characterized by restless activity, excitement, laughter, over self-confidence, rambling speech, and loss of inhibitions

Mesolimbocortical System
*A set of neurons that project from the midbrain tegmentum to the limbic system

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors
*MAOIs – Drugs that block the enzyme monoamine oxidase and used in the treatment of depression

Negative Symptoms
*A absence of behaviors ordinarily seen in normal people, e.g. lack of emotional expression

Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis
*Proposal that schizophrenia begins with abnormalities in the prenatal or neonatal development of the nervous system, based on either genetics or other influences

Phencyclidine
*PCP – drug that inhibits the NMDA receptors

Phenothiazines
*A chemical family that includes antipsychotic drugs (chlorpromazine) that relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Positive Symptoms
*Presence of behaviors not seen in normal individuals, e.g., hallucinations

Postpartum Depression
*Major depression that occurs after giving birth

Schizophrenia
*A psychotic disorder characterized by a deteriorating ability to function in everyday life and by some combination of positive and negative symptoms

Seasonal Affective Disorder
*SAD – Depression that recurs during a particular season, such as winter

Season-of-Birth Effect
*Tendency for people born in winter to have a slightly greater probability of developing schizophrenia than people born at other times of the year

Second-generation Antipsychotics
*Drugs that alleviate the symptoms of schizophrenia without producing serious movement side effects

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors
*Drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin and used in the treatment of depression

Serotonin Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors
*Drugs that block the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine and used in the treatment of depression

Tardive Dyskinesia
*A movement disorder characterized by tremors and other involuntary movements; associated with the use of neuroleptic agents

Tricyclics
*Antidepressant drugs that block the reuptake of catecholamines and serotonin

Unipolar Depression
*Major depressive disorder with no manic or hypomanic episodes


Chapter 13 Biological Psychology Terms

Alzheimer’s Disease
*Neurological disorder  characterized by memory loss, confusion, depression, restlessness, hallucinations, delusions, sleeplessness, and loss of appetite

Amnesia
*Memory loss

AMPA receptor
*A glutamate receptor that can respond to  a a-amino-3-hydroxy-5methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid

Amyloid-ß
*A protein that accumulates to a higher than normal level in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease

Anterograde Amnesia
*Inability to form memories for events that happened after brain damage

Associativity
*Property that a weak input paired with a stronger input enhances its later response

BDNF
*Brain-derived neurotropic factor- a neurotrophin similar to nerve growth factor

Classical Conditioning
*Type of learning produced by the pairing of two stimuli, one of which evokes an automatic response

Cooperativity
*Tendency for nearly simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons to produce long-term potentiation much more effectively than stimulation by just one

Conditioned Response
*Response evoked by a conditioned stimulus after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus
*Stimulus that evokes a particular response only after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Confabulation
*A distinctive symptom of Korsakoff’s syndrome in which patients fill in memory gaps with guesses

Consolidation
*To strengthen a memory and make it more long-lasting

Declarative Memory
*Deliberate recall of information that one recognizes as a memory

Engram
*Physical representation of what has been learned

Episodic Memory
*Memories of single personal events

Equipotentiality
*Concept that all parts of the cortex contribute equally to complex behavior; any part of the cortex can substitute for any other

Explicit Memory
*Deliberate recall of information that one recognizes as a memory

Habituation
*A decrease in response to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly and accompanied by no change in other stimuli

Hebbian Synapse
*A synapse that increases in effectiveness because of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

Implicit Memory
*An influence of experience on behavior even if the influence is not recognized

Instrumental Conditioning
*Operant conditioning- A type of learning in which reinforcement or punishment changes the future probabilities of a given behavior

Korsakoff’s Syndrome
*Brain damage caused by prolonged thiamine deficiency

Lateral Interpositus Nucleus
*LIP – A nucleus of the cerebellum that is essential for learning

Long-term Depression
*LTD – A prolonged decrease in response at a synapse where the axons have been less active than certain other axons afferent to that neuron

Long-term Memory
*Memory of events that occurred further back in time

Long-term Potentiation
*LTP –  when one or more axons connected to a dendrite bombard it with a rapid series of stimuli, some of the synapses become more responsive to new input of the same type for minutes, days, or weeks

Mass Action
*Concept that the cortex works as a whole and the more cortex, the better

NMDA receptor
*A glutamate receptor that can respond to the drug N-methyl-D-aspartate

Procedural Memory
*A type of memory that includes motor skills and habits; a type of implicit memory

Punishment
*An event that suppresses the frequency of the preceding response

Reconsolidation
*Re-strengthening of a memory by a similar later experience

Reinforcer
*Any event that increases the probability of repeating the preceding response

Retrograde Amnesia
*Loss of memory for events that occurred before brain damage

Retrograde Transmitter

*A transmitter released by a postsynaptic cell that travels back to the Presynaptic cell to modify it

Semantic Dementia
*Loss of semantic memory after damage to the anterior and inferior temporal lobe

Sensitization
*An increase in response to mild stimuli as a result of exposure to more intense stimuli

Short-term Memory
*Memory of events that have just occurred

Specificity
*Property that highly active synapses become strengthened and less active synapses do not

Tau Protein
*Part of the intracellular support structure of axons

Unconditioned Stimulus
*Stimulus that automatically evokes an unconditioned response

Unconditioned Response
*Response automatically evoked by an unconditioned stimulus


Chapter 12 Biological Psychology Terms

What is the Behavioral Activation System
*BAS - Left brain hemispheric activity marked by low to moderate autonomic arousal and a tendency to approach, which could characterize either happiness or anger.

What is the Behavioral Inhibition System
*BIS - Right brain hemispheric activity, which increases attention and arousal, inhibits action, and stimulates emotions such as fear and disgust

What is the James-Lange Theory
*Proposal that an event first evokes the autonomic arousal and skeletal responses and that the feeling aspect of emotion is the perception of those responses.

What is Limbic System
*Interlinked structures that form a border around the brainstem

What is a Panic Attack
*Period marked by extreme sympathetic nervous system arousal

What is a Pure Autonomic Failure
*Condition when output from the autonomic nervous system to the body fails

What is a Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis
*A set of neurons that connect to the amygdala

What are Benzodiazepines
*Anti-anxiety drugs

What is Receptor/*GABA a Receptor
*Receptor complex structure that includes a site that binds GABA as well as sites that modify the sensitivity of the GABA site

What is a 5-hydroxyindoleacetic Acid
*The main metabolite of serotonin

What is a Panic Disorder
*Condition marked by frequent periods of anxiety and rapid breathing, increased heart rate, sweating, and trembling

What is a Startle Reflex
*Response that one makes after a sudden, unexpected loud noise or similar sudden stimulus

What is Turnover
*Release and resythesis of a neurotransmitter

What is Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
*ACTH - Chemical released from the anterior pituitary glad which enhances metabolic activity and elavates blood sugar levels

What is an Antibody
*Y-shaped proteins that attach to particular kinds of antigens

What is an Antigen
*Surface proteins on a cell that identify the cell as your own

What is Behavioral Medicine
*field that includes the effects of diet, smoking, exercise, stressful expriences, and other behaviors on health

What is Cortisol
*Hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex that elevates blood sugar and enhances metabolism

What are Cytokines
*Small proteins that combat infections and communicate with the brain to elicit appropriate behaviors

What is General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
*A generalized response to stress

What is the HPA Axis
*Circuit between the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands

What is the Immune System
*Strucures that protect the body against viruses, bacteria, and other intruders

What is a Leukocyte
*White blood cells

What is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
*A condition resulting from a severe traumatic experience, leading to long-lasting state of frequent recollections and nightmares about the event, avoidance of reminders of it, and exaggerated arousal

What is Psychoneuroimmunology
*Study of the ways in which experiences, especially stressful ones, alter the immune system and how the immune system influences the central nervous system

What is Stress
*The nonspecific responses of the body to any demand made upon it, also defined as events that are interpreted as threatening.

Chapter 11 Biological Psychology Terms

Activating effects
*Temporary effect of a hormone, which occurs at any time in life while the hormone is present

Alpha-fetoprotein
*A protein that binds with estradiol in the bloodstream of immature mammals

Androgens
*Testes-produced hormones that are more abundant in males

Androgen Insensitivity
*Testicular feminization – condition in which individuals with an XY chromosome pattern have the genital appearance of a female because their body cannot utilize androgens

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
*CAH – The overdevelopment of the adrenal glands from birth

Estradiol
*A hormone in the estrogen family

Estrogens
*Family of hormones that are more abundant in females

Follicle-stimulating Hormone
*FSH – Chemical released from the anterior pituitary; promotes the growth of ovarian follicles

Gender Identity
*The sex with which a person identifies

Hermaphrodite
*An individual who has a mixture of both male and female reproductive structures

Impotence
*The inability to have an erection

Intersex
*People whose sexual development is intermediate or ambiguous

Luteinizing Hormone
*Hormone released from the anterior pituitary that causes the follicle to release an ovum

Menstrual Cycle
*A periodic variation in hormones and fertility over the course of about 28 days

Müllerian Ducts
*Precursors to female internal structures; present in both genetic males and females

Organizing Effects
*Long-lasting effects of a hormone that are present during a sensitive period early in development

Oxytocin
*Hormone released by the posterior pituitary; important for sexual and parental behaviors.

Periovulatory Period
*Time around the middle of the menstrual cycle of maximum fertility and high estrogen levels

Progesterone
*Steroid hormone that prepares the uterus for the implantation of a fertilized ovum and promotes the maintenance of pregnancy

Sensitive Period
*Time early in development when experiences have a particularly strong and enduring influence

Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus
*Area in the anterior hypothalamus that is larger in males than in females and contributes to control of male sexual behaviors

Sexual Selection
*Tendency for a gene to spread in the population if it makes individuals more appealing to the opposite sex

SRY Gene
*Gene that causes the primitive gonads to develop into testes.

Steroid hormones
*Hormones that contain four carbon rings

Testicular Feminization
*Condition in which individuals with an XY chromosome pattern have the genital appearance of a female

Testosterone
*An androgen that is more prevalent in males than in females

Wolffian Ducts
*Precursors to male internal structures; present in both genetic males and females

Chapter 09 Biological Psychology Terms

Alpha Waves
*A steady series of brain waves at a frequency of 8 to 12 per second that are characteristic of relaxation

Basal Forebrain
*Area anterior and dorsal to the hypothalamus; includes cell clusters that promote wakefulness and sleep

Brain Death
*Condition with no sign of brain activity and no response to any stimulus

Circadian Rhythms
*An internal biological clock; about 24 hours in humans

Coma
*An extended period of unconsciousness with a low level of brain activity

Insomnia
*Inadequate sleep

Jet lag
*A disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones

K-complex
*A sharp brain wave associated with temporary inhibition of neuronal firing

Locus Coeruleus
*A small structure in the pons that emits bursts of impulses in response to meaningful events, especially those that produce emotional arousal

Melatonin
*A hormone produced by the pineal gland that influences circadian rhythms

Narcolepsy
*A condition characterized by frequent periods of sleepiness during the day

Night Terrors
*Experiences of intense anxiety from which a person awakens screaming in terror; more severe than nightmares

Orexin
*Neurotransmitter that increases wakefulness and arousal

Paradoxical Sleep
*Sleep that is deep in some ways and light in others

Periodic Limb Movement Disorder
*A sleep disorder characterized by repeated involuntary movement of the legs and sometimes the arms

PGO Waves
*A distinctive pattern of high-amplitude electrical potentials that occur first in the pons, then in the lateral geniculate, and then in the occipital cortex

Pineal Gland
*An endocrine gland located just posterior to the thalamus

Polysomnograph
*A combination of EEG and eye-movement records

Pontomesencephalon
*Part of the reticular formation that contributes to cortical arousal

REM Behavior Disorder
*A condition in which people move around vigorously during REM sleep

Reticular Formation
*A structure that extends from the medulla into the forebrain; controls motor area of the spinal cord and selectively increases arousal and attention in various forebrain areas

Sleep Apnea
*Impaired ability to breathe while sleeping

Sleep Spindle
*Brain waves in bursts that last at least half a second

Slow-Wave Sleep
*Stages 3 and 4 of sleep, which are characterized by slow, large-amplitude brain waves

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
*Part of the hypothalamus that provides the main control of circadian rhythms for sleep and body temperature

Vegetative State
*Condition in which someone has decreased brain activity and alternates between wakefulness and sleep but shows only limited responsiveness, such as increased heart rate in response to a painful stimulus

Zeitgeber
*A stimulus that resets the circadian rhythm

Chapter 07 Biological Psychology Terms

Somatosensation   
*the skin sensations: touch/pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.   

Pacinian Corpuscle   
*The prototype touch receptor; detects sudden displacement or high frequency vibrations on skin.   

Pacinian Corpuscle Potential Strength   
*When the potential is big enough the receptor reaches threshold and generates and AP   

Adaptation   
*The progressive loss of response to a maintained stimulus. Key for representing changes in ones Environment*   

Tonic receptors   
*Show slow or no decline in action potential frequency   

Phasic Receptors   
*Display adaptation and decrease frequency of AP's   

Sensory Adaptations   
*Include Tonic Receptors, and Phasic Receptors   

2 Mechanisms for Detecting changes in intensity of Stimulation   
*Changes in AP frequency in single neurons; Different populations of neurons that respond to different levels of intensity.   

4 Tactile Touch Receptors in the skin   
Pacinian Corpuscle- Vibration,fast adapting
Meissner's Corpuscle-touch,fast-adapting
Merkel's Discs-Touch,slow-adapting
Ruffini's ending-stretch, slow adapting   

Primary somatosensory cortex (S1)   
*Receives touch information form the opposite side of the body   

Secondary somatosensory cortex (S2)   
*Maps both sides of the body   

Somatosensory Pathways   
*Information from touch receptors in the head enter CNS through Cranial nerves
Information from receptors below head enter spinal cord and travel thru 31 spinal nerves to the brain   

Somatosensory information   
*Ascends ipsilaterally in the dorsal column system   

Dermartome   
*Refers to the skin area connected to or innervated by a single sensory spinal nerve   

Pain   
*Discomfort normally associated with tissue damage. Conveyed by activation of receptors on free nerve endings   

Nociceptors   
*name of sensory receptors that convey pain-related information   

TRPV1   
*Conveys Pain information relevant to heat
Cold and Hot
-Found in unmyelinated fibers "C Fibers"   

Capsaicin   
*molecule in chili peppers that activates this class of receptors   

TRPV2   
*Detects hotter temperatures than TRPV1
Really Hot
-Found on large myelinated nerve fiber
"A Delta"   

SCN9 gene   
*Encodes a NA+ on nociceptors, people with a defect in this gene can not feel pain   

Pain Pathways   
Ascend in the spinothalamic tract   

Periaqueductal gray area (PAG)   
*Midbrain structure that exerts descending inhibitory control over afferent pain pathways
PAG releases -substance P in afferent pathways   

Endorphins   
*Group of endogenous peptides that activate opiate receptors. (enkephalin, dynorphin)   

Gate Control Theory of Pain   
*Melzack and Wall (1965)
Incoming pain information can be blocked at the level of the spinal cord from descending paths from the PAG   

Placebo   
*Drug or other procedure with no pharmacological effect.
Placebos decrease pain perceptions by activating emotional response systems.   

Cannabinoids   
*Chemicals related to marijuana that are believed to block pain perceptions   

Chemodetection   
*Taste and Smell   

5 Taste Receptors   
*Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Unami- (Meaty)   

Papillae   
*On tongue contains 50-150 taste receptor cells per bud. Taste cells constantly replace   

3 Types of Papillae   
*Foliate, fungiform, vallate   

Taste   
*Salty-Na+ is transported across cell membrane via channels leading to depolarization
Sour-Acid (H+)sensitive receptors block K+ channels and induce depolarization by preventing K+ outflow
Sweet- Detected by combination of two members of taste receptor family   

Supertasters   
*Have higher sensitivity to all taste and mouth sensations   

Olfaction   
*Sense of smell   

Olfactory receptors   
*Nerve endings that act as the receptors for the sense of smell   

Memory   
*The retention of information.   

Primacy Effect   
*The tendency to remember the first items well.   

Recency Effect   
*The tendency to remember the last items well.   

Free Recall   
*To produce a response.
ex. essay or short answer tests.   

Cued Recall   
*Recieving significant hints about the material.   

Recognition   
*Several choices, and choosing the correct response.
ex. multiple choice tests.   

Savings Method   
*aka. relearning method.
Detects memory by comparing the speed of original learning to the speed of relearning.   

Explicit Memory   
*aka. direct memory
Someone who states an answer regards it as a product of his or her memory.   

Implicit Memory   
*aka. indirect memory
An experience influences what you say or do even though you might not be aware of the influence
ex. The taxidermy/zoo video   

Primes   
*Reading or hearing a word temporarily primes that word and increases the chance you will use it yourself.   

Procedural Memories   
*Memories of motor skills.   

Declaritive Memories   
*Memories we can readily state in words.   

Information- Processing Model   
*Information that enters the system is processed, coded, and stored.   

Sensory Store   
*Momentary storage of sensory information.   

Short-Term Memory   
*Temporary storage of recent events.   

Long-Term Memory   
*A relatively permanent store.   

Semantic Memory   
*Memory of general principles and facts.   

Episodic Memory   
*Memory for specific events in a person's life.   

Source Amnesia   
*Forgetting where or how you learned something.   

Chunking   
*Grouping items into meaningful sequences or clusters.   

Retrieval Cues   
*Associated information that might help you regain the memory.   

Consalidate   
*Converting a short- term memory into a long- term memory.   

Working Memory   
*A system for working with current information.   

Chapter 06 Biological Psychology Terms

Astigmatism
*A decreased responsiveness to one kind of line or another, caused by an asymmetric curvature of the eyes.

Bipolar Cells
*Type of cell in the retina that receives input directly from the receptors.

Blind Spot
*Area at the back of the retina where the optic nerve exists; it is devoid of receptors.

Binocular
*Stimulation from both eyes.

Blindsight
*The ability to respond in limited ways to visual information without perceiving it consciously.

Color Constancy
*The ability to recognize colors despite changes in lighting.

Complex Cells
*A type of cell in areas V1 and V2 that responds to a pattern of light in a particular orientation anywhere within its large receptive field.

Color Vision Deficiency
*Inability to perceive color differences.

Cones
*Type of retinal receptor that contributes to color perception.

Dorsal Stream
*Visual path in the parietal cortex that helps the motor system locate objects; the “where” path.

Feature Detectors
*Neurons whose responses indicate the presence of a particular feature.

Fovea
*A tiny area of the retina specialized for acute, detailed vision.

Fusiform Gyrus
*Brain area of the inferior temporal cortex that recognizes faces.

Ganglion Cells
*Type of neuron in the retina that receives input from bipolar cells.

Horizontal Cells
*Type of retinal cell that receives input from receptors and delivers inhibitory input to bipolar cells.

Inferior Temporal Cortex
*Portion of the cortex where neurons are highly sensitive to complex aspects of the shape of visual stimuli within very large receptive fields.

Koniocellular Neurons
*Small ganglion cells that occur throughout the retina.

Law of Specific Nerve Energies
*Statement that whatever excites a particular nerve always sends the same kind of information to the brain.

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
*Thalamic nucleus that receives incoming visual information.

Lateral Inhibition
*The reduction of activity in one neuron by activity in neighboring neurons.

Magnocellular neurons
*Large cell bodies with large receptive fields that are distributed evenly throughout the retina.

Opponent-process Theory
*Idea that we perceive color in terms of opposites.

MST
*Middle Superior Temporal Cortex

MT
*Middle Temporal Cortex – area of the brain that detects moving objects.

Parvocellular Neurons
*Small cell bodies with small receptive fields in or near the fovea.

Primary Visual Cortex
*Area VI – Area of the cortex responsible for the first stage of visual processing.

Photopigments
*Chemicals contained in rods and cones that release energy when struck by light.

Prosopagnosia
*The inability to recognize faces due to damage of several brain areas.

Pupil
*An opening in the center of the iris where light enters.

Retina
*The rear surface of the eye, which is lined with visual receptors.

Retinex Theory
*Concept that the cortex compares information from various parts of the retina to determine the brightness and color for each area.

Rods
*Type of retinal receptor that detects brightness of light.

Receptive Field
*The area in visual space that excites or inhibits any neuron.

Retinal Disparity
*The discrepancy between what the left and right eyes see.

Saccade
*Voluntary eye movements.

Secondary Visual Cortex
*Area V2 – Area of the brain that processes information from the primary visual cortex and transmits it to additional areas.

Sensitive Period
*Time early in development when experiences have a particularly strong and enduring influence.

Simple Cell
*Type of visual cortex cell that has a receptive field with fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones.

Strabismus
*A condition in which the eyes do not point in the same direction.

Trichromatic Theory
*Theory that color is perceived through the relative rates of responses by three kinds of cones, each one maximally sensitive to a different set of wavelengths.

Ventral Stream
*Visual paths in the temporal cortex that are specialized for identifying and recognizing objects; the “what” path.

Visual Agnosia
*An inability to recognize objects despite otherwise satisfactory vision.

Visual Field
*Area of the world that an individual can see at any time.

Chapter 05 Biological Psychology Terms

Apoptosis
*A programmed mechanism of cell death.

Cerebrovascular Accident
*A stroke

Closed Head Injury
*A result of a sharp blow to the head that does not puncture the brain.

Collateral Sprouts
*Newly formed branches of an axon.

Deafferent
*To remove or disable the sensory nerves from a body part.

Denervation Supersensitivity
*Receptor supersensitivity – increased sensitivity to neurotransmitters by a postsynaptic neuron after loss of input.

Diaschisis
*Decreased activity of surviving brain neurons after damage to other neurons.

Edema
*Accumulation of fluid.

Hemorrhage
*A type of stroke resulting from a ruptured artery.

Differentiation
*The process of developing axons and dendrites.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
*A condition resulting from prenatal exposure to alcohol; marked by hyperactivity, decreased alertness, facial abnormalities, and varying degrees of mental retardation.

Focal Hand Dystonia
*A disorder where one or more fingers are in constant contraction or where moving one finger independent of other is difficult.

Migration
*Movement of neurons or glia from one location to another.

Myelination
*Process by which glia produce the insulating fatty sheath that accelerates transmission in many vertebrate axons.

Nerve Growth Factor
*A protein that promotes the survival and growth of axons in the sympathetic nervous system and certain axons in the brain.

Neural Darwinism
*Principle of competition among neurons.

Neurotrophin
*A chemical that promotes the survival and activity of neurons.

Ischemia
*Type of stroke resulting from a blood clot or other obstruction in an artery.

Phantom Limb
*A continuing sensation of an amputated body part.

Proliferation
*Production of new cells.

Stem Cells
*Undifferentiated cells that divide and produce daughter cells that develop more specialized properties.

Synaptogenesis
*The formation of new synapses.

Stroke
*A temporary loss of normal blood flow to a brain area.

Tissue Plasminogen Activator
*tPA – A drug that breaks up blood clots.

Chapter 04 Biological Psychology Terms

Autonomic Nervous System
*Part of the PNS that controls the heart, intestines, and other organs.

Basal Ganglia
*A group of subcortical forebrain structures lateral to the thalamus; involved in movement

Bell-Magendie law
*The concept that the entering dorsal roots carry sensory information and the exiting ventral roots carry motor information.

Brainstem
*Consists of the medulla, pons, midbrain, and central structures of the forebrain.

Central canal
*A fluid-filled channel in the center of the spinal cord.

Central Nervous System
*CNS – The brain and spinal cord

Cerebellum
*A large hindbrain structure important in the control of movement, balance, coordination, timing, and attention.

Cerebral cortex
*A layer of cells on the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres.

Cerebrospinal Fluid
*A clear fluid similar to blood plasma produced by choroid plexus in the brain ventricles.

Corpus Callosum
*Large bundle of axons that  connect the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.

Cranial nerves
Nerves that control sensations from the head, muscle movements of the head, and much of the *parasympathetic output to the organs.

Dorsal
*Located toward the back.

Dorsal root ganglia
*Clusters of sensory neurons outside the spinal cord.

Forebrain
*The most anterior part of the brain; consists of the two cerebral hemispheres.

Frontal Cortex
*Anterior part of the cortex important in voluntary movement.

Gray matter
*Areas of the nervous system that are densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites.

Hindbrain
*The posterior part of the brain.

Hippocampus
*A large structure located toward the posterior of the forebrain; important in memory.

Hypothalamus
*A collection of nuclei beneath the thalamus; important in basic functions such as thirst, hunger, reproductive behaviors, etc.

Inferior colliculus
*A swelling on each side of the tectum; important for auditory processing.

Limbic system
*Interlinked structures that form a border around the brainstem; important in emotional behaviors.

Medulla
*Hindbrain structure located just above the spinal cord

Meninges
*Membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord.

Midbrain
*Middle part of the brain

Neuroanatomy
*The structure of the nervous system

Nucleus basalis
*A forebrain structure that lies on the ventral surface; receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia; sends axons to areas of the cerebral cortex

Occipital lobe
*Posterior part of cortex important in processing vision.

Parasympathetic nervous system
*System of nerves that facilitate vegetative, nonemergency responses by the body’s organs

Parietal lobe
*Area of cortex between frontal and temporal lobe; important in processing somatosensory information and attention.

Peripheral nervous system
*PNS – nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Pons
*Hindbrain structure that lies anterior and ventral to the medulla

Prefrontal lobe
*Anterior portion of the frontal lobe; processes complex functions

Raphe system
*Brain areas that send axons to much of the forebrain, modifying the brain’s readiness to respond to stimuli

Reticular formation
*A structure that extends from the medulla into the forebrain; controls motor areas of the spinal cord and selectively increases arousal and attention in forebrain areas

Somatic nervous system
*Part of the PNS that consists of the axons conveying messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles

Spinal cord
*Part of the CNS; it communicates with all of the sense organs and muscles except those of the head

Substantia nigra
*A midbrain structure that gives rise to a pathway releasing dopamine

Superior colliculus
*Swelling on either side of the tectum; important to visual processing

Sympathetic nervous system
*A network of nerves that prepare the organs for vigorous activity

Tectum
*Roof of the midbrain

Tegmentum
*Intermediate level of the midbrain

Temporal lobe
*The lateral portion of the hemispheres; important in processing auditory information and complex visual information

Thalamus
*A pair of structures in the center of the forebrain; important in relaying sensory information to other areas of the brain

Ventral
*Toward the stomach

Ventricles
*Four fluid-filled cavities within the brain

White matter
*Areas of the nervous system consisting mostly of myelinated axons

Chapter 03 Biological Psychology Terms

Agonist
*A drug that increases activity at a synapse

Antagonist
*A drug that decreases activity at a synapse 

Acetylcholine
*A major neurotransmitter 

Acetylcholinesterase
*An enzyme important in the breakdown of acetylcholine

Amino Acids
*Group of neurotransmitters that includes glutamate, GABA, glycine and aspartate

Anterior Pituitary
*Portion of the pituitary gland, composed of glandular tissue

Autoreceptors
*Receptors that respond to the released transmitter by inhibiting further synthesis and release

Catecholamines
*Group of neurotransmitters that includes dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine

COMT
*Enzyme that breaks down excess dopamine into inactive chemicals that cannot stimulate the dopamine receptors

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential
*EPSP – Graded depolarization that increases the likelihood of an action potential

Endocrine Glands
*Hormone producing glands

Exocytosis
*Release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft

Gap Junction
*A direct contact of one neuron with another, enabling electrical transmission

Hormone
*A chemical that is secreted by cells in one part of the body and conveyed by the blood to influence other cells

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential
*IPSP – Temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane that decreases the likelihood of an action potential

Iontotropic Effects
*Synaptic effects that depend on the rapid opening of some kind of gate in the membrane

Ligand-gated Channel
*Channel that opens when a neurotransmitter attaches

MAO
*Monoamine oxidase – An enzyme that converts catecholamines and serotonin into synaptically inactive forms

Metabotropic Effects
*A sequence of metabolic reactions that produce slow and long-lasting effects at a synapse

Monoamines
*Chemicals formed by a change in certain amino acids

Neurogliaform Cell
*A kind of neuron that releases huge amounts of GABA all at once, producing widespread inhibition

Neuromodulators
*Neuropeptides

Neuropeptides
*Chains of amino acids released by dendrites and cell body 

Neurotransmitters
*Chemicals released by neurons that affect other neurons

Nitric Oxide
*A gas neurotransmitter released by many small local neurons

Oxytocin
*A hormone released by the posterior pituitary; important for sexual and parental behaviors

Peptide Hormones
*Hormones composed of short chains of amino acids

Pituitary Gland
*An endocrine gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus

Postsynaptic Neuron
*Neuron that receives transmission from another neuron

Presynaptic Neuron
*Neuron that sends transmission to another neuron

Posterior Pituitary
*Portion of the pituitary gland which releases hormones synthesized by the hypothalamus

Protein Hormones
*Hormones composed of long chains of amino acids

Purines
*A category of chemicals including adenosine and several of its derivatives

Reflex Arc
*A circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response

Reflexes
*Automatic muscular responses to stimuli

Releasing Hormones
*Hormone released by the hypothalamus that flows through the blood to the anterior pituitary, causing the pituitary to release particular hormones

Reuptake
*Reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by the presynaptic terminal

Spatial Summation
*Combination of effects of activity from two or more synapses onto a single neuron

Spontaneous Firing Rate
*The periodic production of action potentials even without synaptic input

Second Messenger
*A chemical that, when activated by a neurotransmitter, initiates communication to many areas within the neuron

Synapse
*A specialized gap as a point of communication between two neurons

Temporal Summation
*The cumulative effect of repeated stimuli within a brief time frame

Transmitter-gated Channels
*An ion channel that opens temporarily when a neurotransmitter binds to it

Transporters
*Special membrane protein where reuptake occurs of the neurotransmitter

Vasopressin
*Antidiuretic hormone released by posterior pituitary; raises blood pressure and enables kidneys to conserve water

Vesicles
*Tiny packets filed with neurotransmitter molecules

Chapter 02 Biological Psychology Terms

Active Transport
*A protein- mediated process that expends energy to enable a molecule to cross a cell membrane

Afferent Axon
*Axon that brings information into a structure

Astrocytes
*Star-shaped glia that synchronize the activity of axons

Axon
*Thin fiber extending from the neuron cell body that sends signals to other neurons

Absolute refractory period
*A time when the membrane is unable to produce an action potential

Action potential
*Messages sent by axons

All-or-none law
*Principle that the amplitude and velocity of an action potential are independent of the stimulus that initiated it

Axon hillock
*A swelling where the axon emerges from the cell body

Blood-brain Barrier
*Mechanism that excludes most chemicals from entering the brain

Cell Body
*Structure containing the nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria

Concentration gradient
*Difference in distribution of ions across the neuron’s membrane

Dendrites
*Branching fibers of a neuron that receive information from other neurons

Dendritic Spines
*Short outgrowths that increase the surface area available for synapses

Depolarize
*To reduce polarization towards zero across a membrane

Efferent Axon
*Axon that carries information away from a structure

Electrical gradient
*Difference in electrical charges between the inside and outside of the cell

Graded potentials
*A membrane potential that varies in magnitude in proportion to the intensity of the stimulus

Glia
*Type of cell in the nervous system that, in contrast to neurons, does not conduct impulses over long distances

Glucose
*A simple sugar

Hyperpolarization
*Increased polarization across a membrane

Interneuron
*A neuron whose axons and dendrites are all confined within a given structure. Also called an intrinsic neuron

Local anesthetic
*Drug that attach to the sodium channels of the membrane, stopping action potentials

Local neurons
*Neurons without an axon

Microglia
*Glial cells that remove waste material and other microorganisms from the nervous system

Motor Neuron
*Neuron that receives excitation from other neurons and conducts impulses to a muscle

Myelin Sheath
*Insulating material that covers vertebrate axons

Myelin
*An insulating material composed of fats and proteins

Myelinated axons
*Insulating material that covers vertebrate axons

Neurons
*Cells in the nervous system that receive information and transmit it to other cells

Nodes of Ranvier
*Interruptions in the myelin sheath of vertebrate neurons

Oligodendrocytes
*Glial cells that form myelin sheaths (CNS)

Presynaptic Terminal
*End bulb of axon that releases neurotransmitters

Polarization
*Same as an electrical gradient

Propagation of the action potential
*Transmission of an action potential down an axon

Radial Glia
*Cells that guide the migration of neurons and the growth of axons and dendrites during embryological development

Refractory period
*Time when the cell resists the production of further action potentials

Relative refractory period
*Time after the absolute refractory period that requires a stronger stimulus to initiate an action potential

Resting potential
*The potential across the membrane at rest

Salutatory conduction
*The jumping of action potentials from node to node

Selective permeability
*Ability of some chemicals to pass more freely than others through a membrane

Schwann Cells
*Glial cells that form the myelin sheath in the PNS

Sensory Neuron
*Neuron that is highly sensitive to a specific type of energy (light, sound, etc)

Sodium-potassium pump
*Mechanism that actively transports sodium ions out of the cell while drawing in two potassium ions

Threshold
*Minimum amount of membrane depolarization necessary to trigger an action potential

Voltage-gated channels
*Membrane channel whose permeability to sodium (or some other ion) depends on the voltage difference across the membrane


Chapter 01 Biological Psychology Terms

What is Altruistic Behavior
*An action that benefits someone other than the actor

What is Artificial Selection
*A process of selecting plants/animals for desired traits

What are Autosomal Genes
*All Chromosomes other than X and Y

What are Chromosomes
*Strands of genes

What is Deoxyribonucleic Acid
*DNA – Double-stranded molecule that is part of the chromosomes

What are Dizygotic twins
*Fraternal (non-identical) twins derived from two eggs

What is a Dominant Gene
*A gene that shows a strong effect in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition

What are Enzymes
*Biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the body

What is Epigenetics
*A field that deals with changes in gene expression without modification of the DNA sequence

What is Evolution
*A change over generations in the frequencies of various genes in a population

What is Evolutionary Psychology
*A field that deals with how behaviors evolved

What is Fitness
*The spreading of genes; number of copies of one’s genes that endure in later generations

What are Genes
*Units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another

What is Heritability
*An estimate of the degree to which variation in a characteristic depends on genetic variations in a given population

What does Heterozygous mean?
*Having two unlike genes for a given trait

What does Homozygous mean?
*Having two identical genes for a given characteristic

What is Kin Selection
*Selection for a gene that benefits the individual’s relatives

What is Lamarckian Evolution
*A theory of evolution through the inheritance of acquired characteristics

What are Monozygotic Twins
*Twins (identical) derived from one egg

What is a Mutation
*A heritable change in a DNA molecule

What is Phenylketonuria
*PKU – A genetic inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine

What are Recessive Gene
*One that shows effects only in the homozygous condition

What is Reciprocal Altruism
*Helping others who may be helpful in return

What is Ribonucleic Acid
*RNA – A single-strand chemical

What is a Sex-limited Gene
*Gene that exerts its effects primarily in one sex because of activation by androgens or estrogens; both sexes may have the gene

What is a Sex-linked Gene
*Gene on either the X or the Y chromosome